Tutored Life Drawing Blog Week 16: Form (Patreon)

Form is the expression of three dimensional structure through drawing. This covers multiple different ideas that can include volumes – three dimensional shapes and spaces – as well as their relationships to each other, or an observer, such as orientation and placement.

The focus of this lesson will be on drawing observed forms, through drawing volumes, and creating cross-contour marks to describe them. However, ideas about form not observed directly can also be incorporated into drawings. For instance, understanding cross sectional shapes helps express form, even though they cannot be observed directly.

There are many other approaches to drawing form, such as manipulating viewpoint or relationships between shapes and spaces – these are a bit beyond the scope of this lesson, but demonstrate the broadness of this area of drawing.

Form and Volume

There are many aspects of form that can be expressed through drawing. In the previous lesson 15: Gesture in Longer Poses – ideas about overlaps where introduced to help show the relationships between volumes in space.

Overlaps are created when lines or shapes pass in front of each other. The implication is that the overlapping form is closer to the viewer. Here red lines are indicated overlapping the blue ones.

The is the first step to portraying form, through the placement of volumes in space. As an image develops, drawing can be used to describe the three dimensional structure of these volumes. Knowledge underpins a lot of the understanding we have of volumes, even when simplified. For instance, most people can perceive a cup as roughly cylindrical, or interpret a book as a flattened box-shape.

Geometric forms underpin these simple objects.

It is helpful to begin understanding the body through simple volumes – spheres, cubes and cylinders. (Some would add cones to this as well.) This can start by acknowledging roundness, depth, diminishing (perspective) lines and other cues to volume and space. Later lessons look into further by covering anatomy and structure.

Basic volumes, such as these cylinders, can be used to simplify the complex forms of the body. Later lessons will look at how to apply structure to the figure in more depth.

The simplicity of these forms makes them useful for picturing how the volumes of the figure are interacting with each other, and how they are orientated in space. However, they are not accurate. In reality, the forms of the body are more complex, and organic, and this can be seen when looking at cross sectional views of the body.

 'CT of a normal abdomen and pelvis, axial plane' - By Mikael Häggström, used with permission. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) Yellow lines on the front view show where each scan was taken. The cross-section of the torso is very rounded at the ribcage, flattening for the waist and becoming squarer at the hips.

One of the central components of drawing form is describing volumes with marks. One way to get marks to sculpt out volumes is to consider the shape of the cross section through that volume.

Describing Form with Cross-contours

Cross-contours are lines that follow the surface of the form between or across contour lines. The key difference between these two types of lines is that contour lines describe perceived edges, whilst cross-contour lines describe perceived surfaces and volumes. Cross-contours map out the undulations of the surface as it seen, though understanding the volume and its cross sectional shapes can help guide them. Often these can end up looking quite sculptural once built up.

Cross-contour lines curve to follow the dips and rises on the surface, wrapping around rounded forms such as the knees, whilst straight lines are used for the flat floor surface. Note how these lines largely ignore tonal value – form doesn't need to follow light and shadow patterns.

Cross-contour lines will curve over rounded forms (like spheres and cylinders), which can help with understanding more complex body parts, such as the skull, or limbs. Flat surfaces, such as floors and walls, can be described with straight lines – this is is handy for indicating the direction a surface is facing. Some drawings may use mostly straight line hatching, and follow the surface direction by using patches of short marks that change direction around the form.

When drawing cross-contours, it is important to let these lines wrap around the form, not just lie on top of it. This especially applies to rounded volumes, and can help prevent something from looking flat.

The top example shows lines following surface undulations and curving around the form at the contours. The bottom example has lines abruptly stopping at contour lines, and the hatching direction may not fit the surface direction, or if it does, oversimplifies the varying surface.

The roundness of the cross-contour lines also depends on the orientation of the subject – foreshortened round forms tend to display rounded cross-contours.

This drawing uses cross-contours heavily. Note how round these lines get at the hip, where the torso is pointing towards the viewer.

Cross-contour lines can also be used for showing the orientation a volume has – is it pointing towards the viewer or away? This is one way simple forms, like cylinders, can help with understanding the more complex forms of the figure.

The cross-contour lines on this sketch of a leg indicate that it is facing away from the viewer, into the page.

Deciding on the direction the cross-contour lines should go is a common challenge. As a rough rule, rounded cross-contour lines tend to bulge out in the direction a volume points in. However, forms with dimples, or more boxy forms may not fit this idea.

Cross-contour lines can travel over the surface in multiple directions as well. Whilst any direction can be used, some will feel more intuitive than others. Incorporating variety, and adjusting the direction of cross-contours to accommodate more complex situations, such as bending forms, will help with making these lines look more natural.

The cross-contours on this torso travel in multiple directions and intersect, but still follow the form.

A common use of cross-contour lines is for adding shading to a drawing, by letting them become hatching or cross hatching. (See lessons 5 - Hatching and 6 - Cross Hatching.) This is one way of emphasising form with shadow. Cross hatching can be created by combining contour lines that follow two different directions.

 The marks that make up the shading in this portrait drawing follow the turn of the forms of the face.

Form in Artists' Drawings

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy - 'Reclining Nude Woman' (Source: Cleveland Museum of Art)

Whilst this image contains no cross-contours, it is a good reminder of how contour lines can help show form. There are two main ways this happens here; the first is the indication of form through overlapping lines. This shows how the upper torso is leaning a little towards the viewer, as the arm overlaps the chest, the breasts and chest overlap the abdomen and there is even a little overlap of the upper hip into the thigh.

The overall curved lines emphasises soft, rounded forms as well. Even though these lines are contours, the idea of line quality or 'feel' can apply to cross-contours as well.

Peter Hansen – 'Profile Portrait of the Artist's Daughter "Bimse"' (Source: SMK Open)

The heavy, expressive marks in this sketch help sculpt out the major forms of the head and face. Hair is a useful indicator to the volumes of the head when it lies flat, or is pulled over the skull, as the strands folllow the form. The marks around the cheeks and facial features also follow broad surface directions.

Jean-François Millet - The Sower (Source: New York MET)

This richly layered drawing incorporates multiple directions of cross-contour lines throughout. The layers build tone, but also help describe the forms of the figure. Looking carefully at the arm, the lines wrapping around it help indicate the roundness of the limb as it points out of the page.

Form is indicated in the space around the figure as well. The texture of the ploughed field is indicated by short sets of marks, and the tilt of the hillside is shown by the overall direction of marks pointing towards the top left.

Key Points to Remember About Form

• Drawing form involves using lines and marks to describe three dimensional structure.
• Overlapping lines help show form by indicating the position of different volumes relative to each other.
• Cross-contour lines occur between contours and wrap around volumes in any direction, to describe surface and volume.

Over to You – Showing Form with Drawing

Recommended Materials: Almost any drawing material can be used for this lesson.

Further Reading: Lesson 02 – Contour, Lesson 05 – Hatching in Fineliner, Lesson 06 – Cross Hatching in Dip Pen 

Exercise 1: Building Form with cross-contours

Start by drawing some simple blob-like shapes. Try to avoid anything too complex, but do try to add a bit of variety. Work at any size you like, with any material that can create lines.

On top of these, add cross-contours lines to sculpt out the form. This can be straightforward, and just build up a simple organic round form, but it is also possible to create more complexity by changing the direction of the cross-contours and producing dents or bulges in the shapes.

Start with a simple abstract shape, then build volume with cross-contour marks.

Various imagined forms sketched this way.

Exercise 2: Vegetables and Mark Making

Vegetables have been chosen as the subject for this exercise as they tend to have an interesting variety of organic forms, yet still possess simple volumes. It is fine to try any subject you like, though it is a good idea to start simple before working up to more complex things such as the figure.

For this exercise, don't create any contour lines. Instead, create this drawing exclusively in cross-contour lines, sculpting out the form of the subject. Ignore light and shadow entirely. Try experimenting with the marks you make – how are they following the surface, does the thickness of the mark make a difference, what direction should they go?

A couple of sketches of a pepper, created entirely in cross-contour lines.

Exercise 3: Sculpting Inside-Out

This exercise can be done with any subject, though it is works especially well with portraits, figures, and organic subjects. It can be done with photos, though it is a good idea to practise with direct observation too – a self portrait in a mirror is a good option if you cannot access a life drawing class.

The aim of this exercise is to emulate a sculptural process by building form from the inside out. To start, form a core using marks that indicate the orientation of the volumes relative to you. As the drawing develops, work out to the surface of the the subject, sculpting smaller forms and details with your marks. One analogy for this is to draw as if you were following the surface on the inside, such as within a fibreglass shell.

The first step creates a kind of wire frame, the second step works out to big, basic volumes, and the final stage refines these volumes and incorporates more of the surface.

Sketch of a seashell done using the same process.

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Further links

>> Watch the Week 16: Form main lesson HERE (Student & Life Tiers)  
>> Watch the Week 16: Form demo HERE (Student & Life Tiers)

Find links to the whole Tutored Life Drawing Course HERE